ASEAN members remain ambivalent about Tokyo’s political influence. With a stagnant economy and China's shadow looming large, what can Japan do to regain the initiative?
A recent Yahoo! Japan search for “sofuto pawa,” the Japanese translation for soft power, yielded nearly two and a half million entries. While this number indicates the term’s popularity in Japan, it tells us little about how successful Tokyo has been in employing soft power throughout the Western Pacific.
As I discuss in my new book, Japan and China as Charm Rivals: Soft Power in Regional Diplomacy, while Japan’s soft power in China and South Korea remains low it has been far more successful in boosting its image in Southeast Asia. Nonetheless, Japan’s soft power in the region has been limited to economic issues, and as Japan’s economy has remained stagnate, so too has its soft power. Although China’s recent assertiveness presents an opportunity for Japan to revamp its image among ASEAN members, it’s unlikely that Tokyo will successfully seize this opportunity.
In the initial decades after WWII, Japan’s engagement with Southeast Asia was limited, as Tokyo looked to South Asia for economic opportunities. It was only when those opportunities dried up that Japan found deeper engagement with Southeast Asia unavoidable. While Japanese-ASEAN trade grew rapidly, local populations grew increasingly resentful of Tokyo’s growing economic presence. Indeed, Southeast Asians nicknamed Japan the “economic animal.”
The extent of the region’s grievances became evident in 1974 when then-Prime Minster Tanaka Kakuei was greeted by numerous protesters during his visits to Bangkok and Jakarta. Although Tanaka himself dismissed the protesters as people trying to scapegoat Tokyo for their local problems, his intra-party rival Fukuda Takeo disagreed. Upon becoming Prime Minister, Fukuda decided to change course, starting with a landmark speech to the Filipino parliament in 1977.
Even today, this speech is seen as the beginning of Japan’s charm offensive towards the region, and the principles outlined in the speech are known as the Fukuda Doctrine.
Japanese leaders rarely give emotional speeches but Fukuda’s speech was an exception. Admitting suspicions and hostilities on the ground, Fukuda passionately pledged that Japan would try and build a “heart-to-heart” relationship with Southeast Asia. To that end, Fukuda pledged that Japan would mobilize all diplomatic resources – political, social, cultural, as well as economic.
Even before the speech, however, Fukuda had begun courting the region. As foreign minister in 1972, for instance, Fukuda recognized Japan’s policy toward Southeast Asia was skewed toward economic issues. He therefore became a leading proponent of the Japan Foundation, a semi-governmental organization in charge of fostering cultural, social, and academic exchanges, and Southeast Asia became a major target for the Foundation’s work.
Fukuda’s 1977 trip also led to the founding of the ASEAN Cultural Fund, a Japanese organization that offered 5 billion yen (US$63.6 million) to foster cultural exchanges within ASEAN as well as between ASEAN and others. The ASEAN Cultural Fund signaled a new mode of Japanese diplomacy that may be termed as “embedded initiative” –Tokyo embeds its initiatives within a multilateral framework and presents them as collective wisdom. In the case of the Cultural Fund, for instance, ASEAN members even have full jurisdiction over the operation of the fund.
Fukuda’s successors would follow his example with remarkable success. According to Japanese foreign ministry’s surveys conducted in five ASEAN member-states (Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore, and the Philippines), the percentage of those who felt Japan’s war atrocities should never be forgotten fell from over 30 percent in 1978 to 20 percent in 2008. During the same period those who felt that the past should be put to rest rose from 37 percent to 68 percent.
In addition, the vast majority of respondents felt their countries’ relations with Japan are “good” or “generally good.” Roughly the same percentage of respondents agreed that Japan could be “trusted” or “generally trusted.” Japan’s charm offensive was solid enough to embolden Japanese Prime Minister Takeshita Noboru to openly call the region Japan’s “power base” in the late 1980’s.
Takeshita’s statement, however, greatly overstated Japan’s influence in ASEAN, which has declined ever since. The crux of Tokyo’s problems is that ASEAN members, while attracted to Japan’s economic, scientific successes, and cultural vibrancy remain ambivalent about Tokyo’s political influence. For example, a 2008 foreign ministry’s survey showed economic and technological cooperation was the top area that the public in six key ASEAN countries [Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Vietnam] would like to see Japan become more active in, with 66 percent choosing this category. By contrast, only six percent of the ASEAN respondents were eager to see Japan enhance its military presence. This was a far cry from a power base for Tokyo.
The one-dimensional nature of Japan’s image in the region is particularly detrimental because Japan’s economic performance has progressively worsened since the 1980’s, while China’s economy has grown rapidly. Although China didn’t begin trying to woo ASEAN members in earnest until the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis-when Beijing resisted the temptation to devalue its currency- it has outpaced Tokyo in this area for much of the period since. Indeed, even though Japan contributed far more than China in numerical terms to solve the financial crisis, the latter received more praise, including from the U.S.
Here lies the core dilemma for Japan’s charm offensive: Tokyo did not intensify its effort to propagate Japan’s soft power until the country’s hard power was in relative decline. Seen from this perspective, Japan’s soft power offensive is based more on its dwindling grandeur and a lack of other viable policies. As Japan’s economic malaise is likely to continue and its politicians look incompetent. Tokyo would find it hard to justify its relevance as a model to any international audience.
Beijing’s growing assertiveness towards Southeast Asian countries seems to offer Japan a chance to present itself as an alternative to China. But this is partially undercut by an intra-ASEAN divide between attitudes towards China and Japan. The aforementioned six-country survey shows a near-perfect intra-ASEAN divide: people in Singapore, Malaysia, and Thailand saw China as the most important partner and continued to believe it will be in the future. Meanwhile, people in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Vietnam saw Japan as the most important partner and also continued to believe so for the future (henceforth the Japan Group). This intra-ASEAN schism was once again exposed earlier this month when Cambodia, as chair of ASEAN, blocked the Filipino and Vietnamese effort of presenting a united front to Beijing on accepting a code of conduct in disputed waters.
While neither China’s nor Japan’s charm was accepted unanimously, Japan’s problem is that its future importance declines across the board. The survey shows that citizens in five of the six countries felt Beijing’s importance would grow in the years ahead (including all the Japan Group members). Even where China’s importance is expected to decline slightly in Singapore, this is due to Singaporeans believing that India’s importance will grow from 2% as a “present partner” to 24% in the future. At a mere 4%, Japan’s importance among Singaporeans is negligible.
Thus, while China’s growing assertiveness on the South China Sea issue may suggest that Beijing is abandoning its charm offensive, Tokyo’s ability to seize this opportunity is limited by its dim economic outlook and by intra-ASEAN divide.
Jing Sun is an Assistant Professor of Political Science at the University of Denver. He is the author of the forthcoming book, Japan and China as Charm Rivals: Soft Power in Regional Diplomacy (University of Michigan Press, 2012).
Photo Credit: Wikicommons
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Sarah
Sadly no seems to be paying much attention to the power house that South Korea has become, especially in regards to soft power. Any observations on the push and pull relationship that are occurring between South Korea, Japan, and China, in terms of cultural export.
P.S. Where is Taiwan in all this talk, considering that the majority of '中国' soft power emanates from there.
Andao
Sarah that's a great point. Taiwan is a fantastic place and the quality of the people is superb, at least in my experience. Plus Ang Lee's films have made an enormous impact worldwide.
In a similar vein, it's interesting to see how positive Japan is viewed in Taiwan. The article doesn't mention this, but that is one country where Japanese influence far exceeds PRC influence.
slim
John Chan writes for a parody publication, the world socialist web site, where up is down, black is white. Consider the source. He makes the PRC's sophomoric 50-cent crew look like intellectuals. He is consistent — consistently wrong and there is no fact he can't find on wikipedia and spin into a new lie.
John Chan
@slim,
You accuse other bloggers a lot, where is the supporting material to substantiate your accusations? Fabricating accusation without truth is called lie, it seems you are lying a lot.
Why is socialism parody, but not capitalism? Capitalism aims at to make 1% living in decadent life while 99% are exploited by the 1% to the point that they have to worry where is their next meal. Meanwhile socialism aims to reduce the gap between the rich and the poor, and to look after everybody’s welfare. Why don’t you call the benevolent socialism a noble ideal, and the selfish capitalism ridiculous and parody? It seems you are a heartless and without empathy.
John Chan
I would ask the North Koreans how communism is working for them. Really John your bagging capitalism!!! lol the only reason China has closed the gap is through adopting capitalism. I think that the disparity between the rich and poor in both communist China and North Korea is a little more than those of most democratic capaitalist nations.
You may have heard the saying "So bad its good" however i don't think that this applies to areas of political argument.
Andao
":I think that the disparity between the rich and poor in both communist China and North Korea is a little more than those of most democratic capitalist nations. "
I can't speak for NK, but China's Gini index (0.61) is VASTLY higher than any nation in the West, and about double Japan's rate. So unfortunately, Chinese disparity is much greater than a "communist" system would lead anyone to believe. Sort of the worst of both worlds, at this stage.
Dan
John.
Mao’s “Great leap forward” Worst man mad disaster in History, 45 million in four years, not so much from evil as sheer stupidity. Yet he’s the CCP’s poster boy, and you are saying that this is the superior model, setting an example to the world. Please…
Beway
Japan is the only country in the world that has problems with all its neighbours
To the north, it is at loggerhead with Russia over the Kuril islands
To the east, its unreasonable demand that South Korea has no territorial rights over its own Dokdo islands
To the south, it riles China for illegal occupation of Diaoyu islands
To the West, it not only have no respect to the whales but hunt them down without mercy.
So much accolade accorded to Japan of being a non pacifist nation with compassionate people.
Ludicrous indeed.
Dokudami
If you are Chinese, I believe you are too optimistic.
filipino defender
if you are chinese its your country that has a problem with all of your neighbors
Dokudami
I believe it is China not Japan that needs to have more soft power as it seems China is getting more and more isolated from the surrounding countries due to the territorial issues and their strong nationalism by Chinese people..
Cyrus
One thing is correct being a Filipino we are more welcoming of Japan with the recent happenings in the country and since Filipinos are working and living in Japan it is but expected that we would prefer Japan.
The_Observer
@Cyrus
You Filipinos are a funny bunch. You cosy up to a USA that when she took over the Philippines from Spain resulting in the Philippines-American War where the Americans killed about a million Filipinos, mostly civilians. You are also most forgiving of Japan and their many atrocities committed the Philippines during WWII one of which the "comfort women" and their families are still owed an apology and compensation by the Japanese government. When the USA had the Philippines as a R&R place during the Vietnam War and the Americans maintained naval bases for years afterwards your women (and some boys and girls) were literally bending over for seedy US sailors. The legacy of both those occupations remains in the sex trade to be found in many areas and cities of the Philippines. Filipino children and women are victims here and the government seems powerless to alleviate the problems of poverty and exploitation. That's not pride, that's masochism.
In contrast, the Chinese even during the time of Zheng Ho onwards have never claimed the Philippines. The Philippines who signed onto UNCLOS in 1982 are now arguing with China over EEZs in the S. China Sea that wouldn't have been on the table if the Taiwanese (ROC) had kept a comprehensive presence there since the 1950s when they had regained possession of them from the Japanese at the end of WWII. The Chinese are also very good customers of Filipino resources and actually pay good money for them as opposed to conquering the Philippines and taking it (Re: Japan and WWII).
I would suggest that the Filipino Government get their domestic house in order first before trying to claim waters and islands that are contested by several nations and not just by the PRC.
Cyrus
That's where you are wrong the Japanese ambassador already apologized about Japanese atrocities in WWII. I would admit Filipinos were too when we capture a Japanese don't expect him to live.
US have more than made up for the Filipino-American War when they left the Philippines they left one of the most economically advance country in Asia, it is the fault of the Filipino leadership why we are where we are. So, you are telling me there are no whores in China? That is the oldest trade in humanity if they are selling their bodies then it is their choice I have no right to judge.
Racism? Yes in all countries there is Racism, even in the Philippines but we only make a joke of other racist not really your idea of racist but it still is. The fact of the matter is that not Japan in general is racist their is always a bad apple in every tree and no ones an exception to that.
Beway
So what good is there for the Japanese to apologize for their heinous crime when their action don't seem response with sincerity
1. They continue to visit and respect their war criminals in Yasukuni Shrine. In Germany, anyone trying even to link to Nazism will be dealt with harsh punishment in accordance to the law
2. They tried to whitewash their heinous crime from the history books thinking that nobody esp Filipinos will take note of their cowardice act
3. Their illegal occupation of Diaoyu islands and Okinawa only show their ill-intention to keep the stolen war loots.
John Chan
@Cyrus,
You are talking out of the back of your head; you have no clue about Japanese racism and how they view people with dark skin. There are outcries on how Japanese abuse foreigners’ human rights in Japan; it is the general view among Japanese prosecutors that foreigners are guilty by default, they will do their utmost best to detain foreigners in prison without charge and trial for years; one recent case Japanese deported a Nepalese after detaining him more than ten years without charge, he was a victim of misidentification in a homicide case. Japanese did not apologize or compensate him.
It is Japanese policy to deport people at the deportee’s expenses at inflated costs.
Aki
At first, I thought I should ignore your garbage as you are infamously well-known in this site but I wanted to ask you a question. If Japan is a racist country like you said then please explains why people around the world keep coming to Japan in a big number including your fellow countrymen, who are caught up at the border entry in a daily basis while trying to sneak in illegally?
And I want to ask the Diplomat readers to tell me right here if this John Chan is a liar when he talked about Japan. Thanks.
John Chan
@Aki,
1. Your comment proves what Japanese are like, they cannot tolerate difference and criticism, it is the symptom of racism.
2. The narrative in my comment is from an article in The Asia Times online written by a human rights activist living in Japan. There are a few articles on the Diplomat talked about the racist phenomenon in Japan as well. Are saying the Nepalese case false? And are you saying the wrong doings in my comment do not happen in Japan? Please answer the questions on the Bushido’s honour.
3. Are you suggesting Japanese can carry out racist policy and practice freely without being scrutinized because somebody tries to sneak into Japan illegally? There are a lot more people trying to sneak into the USA and EU than Japan, and both places are known for racism; following your logic, are you saying racism does not exist in USA and EU? You are using Strawman fallacy to white wash Japanese racism, it is rather unscrupulous behaviour.
4. Using generalization and stereotyping technique to stop people from telling the ugly facts of Japan is a sign of desperation to escape responsibility. You surely do not do Japanese reputation any good.
Dan
Ummmm. John Chan,. talk about the pot calling th kettle black. Your comments on here are the most sour, contested, nationalistic and unashamably bias towards China. Not onyl do you lie to back up points, you fail to consider true and constructive critism. You think that any critisim is a complete attack on China. Actually most Chinese people I meet are lovely, considerate and generous.These are mostly Chinese Australians, that of which there are over 400,000 here in Melbourne alone. However they live in very isolated communities and mix mainly amoungst other Chinese. This is not racism from Chinese Australians nor from non Chinese Australians, but a convience and comfort of being more connected and immersed in ones culture, which I completely understand as most Chinese immigranted here for political reasons. I completely admit Australian is still has along way to go in terms of race relations, but I would hardly say that China is an open arms society regarding its recently found international status. It still finds hard to shake its closed communist traditons in many ways.
However and you may disagree, that all things considered it is the Chinese government system, which the international community is concerned about, its grip on its citizens and especially its treatment of minorities (which are starting to be questioned intensely within its own borders) In its current political state one has to question what lies in the near future as the domestic population start to wield more power in turn with China's own great rise. Democracy is a given in China, its just a real concern of how and when
Most of what you percieve as bias against you, is actually a plain and obvious projection from yourself and your vaules, which some may label narrow minded.
John Chan
@Dan,
My comments may be pot calling the kettle black, but the anti-China clique is not allowing the pot calling the kettle black, they insist their ugly, dirty and black kettle is clean.
It seems you are totally ignoring the point of contest here; the point of contest is lack of objectivity on this site. For example your criticism is one sided, you focus on me alone, yet you ignore the bad behaviour of the anti-China bloggers; when I protest unfair treatment of China, right away you label my comments “are the most sour, contested, nationalistic and unashamably bias towards China.”
Your comment just demonstrates westerner’s way to seduce people into submission, when people do not subscribe the West’s point of view or value, the westerners will label you “you are not listening,” “you do not have an open minded,” or “you are narrow minded.”
Dan, after 300 years of screwing up the world, do you think it is the time for the West to listen to the other party who is successful and has longer history than the West? Particular the history has proven the West’s model and value is a failure.
Aki
@Chan-san,
I have to tell you that you have been very successful in making everyone hate China today. Reading your comments and of Chinese bloggers in this site, I have to admit that it is really hard to love China and Chinese arrogant attitude in these days. In fact, you really alienate and radicalize me. The more I read your comments, the more I love less of China and I guess my Asian friends in this blog would feel the same.
John Chan
@Aki 君,
Please spare us the hypocrisy; if you can call yourself a China’s friend who needs enemy?
You label me liar without basis, yet I am only point out some fallacies in your comment in return, instead of questioning yourself whether you have the right attitude to participate in a public debate, you are vomiting racist hatred to further prove the deeply rooted Japanese racism.
Aki, if you cannot accept criticism in the public, it is better for you not to participate in any public debate, because your racist ranting is a disgrace of Japan and Japanese.
When is Japanese going show remorse about the atrocity and war crimes it committed before 1945? As long as Japanese refuse to repent its war crimes they are war criminals.
Cyrus
@JC You are the one who is a racist and keeps on spouting mendacious nonsense.
You cannot even handle that China doesn't have Suzerainty in the Philippines and we do dare to invite the United States our treaty ally and accept help from the Japanese.
You cannot seem to accept that such a weak and decrepit Armed Forces of the Philippines would actually dare to go against your powerful PLA.
You cannot seem to accept to argue rationally against the merits of the Philippine Claims on these island but would go on and on spouting Chinese Communist Propaganda.
JC as Jesus Christ once said "Let the one without sin cast the first stone". I would suggest you review all your past comments and look who is the most racist close minded bigot on these forums. I would pray that you mind would be opened to the realities of the world.
PS China is not successful what is successful is a country who was once a COLONY and young at that to be able to become a Global Hegemon and is the champion of DEMOCRACY.
Dan
Actually john one might argue that the world has progressivly better in the last 300 years. Particularly in the last 60 the world has become more stable, and in fact we are in the most peaceful times ever, fact!. This has very little to do with China, infact China is the one that has benefitted greatly from alot of this progression. John I ask you this simple quesition, without adopting capitalism and opening up allowing the U.S to set up shop, do you think that China would be the industrial powerhouse that is today?
Also John looking forward it seems that as China progesses it does so through adopting more and more western approaches to business and innovation. I also would ask as CCP’s elites start to question the cracks in their “superier” systems, what sorts of polictical reforms a likley to shape China? I would say that it is going to become more like a western democracy and further away from Mao’s ideals and values. It is fact that Mao has killed more Chinese than any western imperialist, yet the CCP’s whitewashed version of history paints him as some sort of national hero, responsible for the prosperity that you enjoy today. The prosperous China that exists today was through the natural progression of democracy and capitalists systems that although not perfect are better than any alternative and so have been adopted buy all progressive and modernized societies including China.
Beway
Except for Sushi, Japan has nothing much to show for its soft power. Its economic is in constant decline for the last few decades. Without China market, it could be many times more worse. Its people are basically introvert without a sense of belonging to Asia community for they don't mix with the locals in any other foreign countries they are based. The society itself is racist and prejudice against immigrants from any country especially from the Asia countries..
With the declining population, the curtain is finally closing for Japan as it gradually turn itself into a semi hermit nation as what they were before the Meiji period (1868 – 1912)
Aki
Are you sure you know about Japan and Japanese people? Sure Japan is not a perfect country in terms of soft power but one thing for sure; people in Asia prefer to have Japan as their neighbor much more than a bully, noisy and dirty China. China is nothing but a Japan wannabe, instead of succeeding by hard work like us, China is well known for copying, counterfeit theft and cheating. Please ask your Chinese people of how they love Japanese products and try to sneak illegally in Japan every day. This alone should make your comment laughable.
John Chan
@Aki,
Here are some fallacies in your comment:
1. In Japan, the Japanese said 部落民 were dirty because they do dirty work that the 大和民族 won’t do, such as slaughtering, so they outcast 部落民 to ghetto. The Japanese also said Koreans were smelly because their liking of garlic, so Japanese outcast Koreans to ghetto too. Noisy, dirty, smelly, etc. are the rationales for the Japanese to justify they racial discrimination behaviour, or they like to called it unique Japanese tradition like commercial whaling in the name of science research.
2. China has surpassed Japan in very aspect of measurements, economy, space exploration, and R&D. Perhaps the reason of Japan’s failing and falling is Japanese only knows hard working but does not know working smartly. Japanese working habit definitely is a negative model for everyone not to follow.
3. Japanese is the last people in the world that entitles to bad mouth China in terms of violating IP rights. Nearly everything in Japan you can see is copied, counterfeited, stolen and cheated from China one way or another without paying royalty.
Typhoon
@John Chan,
Well said. I am 100% with you especially on Point 3.
silent oberver
oh yeah china has discovered everything tht is why japan has 19 nobel laureates out of which 16 have got it for their contribution in the field of science on the contrary china has just 10 so it shows the level of R&D infrastructure in china japanese have well known brands like toyota, JVC, sony, suzuki, honda, toshiba, nintendo, kawasaki, casio, canon to name a few how many chinese car brands sell in USA or europe many of them can't even pass through the preliminary stage of security checks so common its good to be talk positively about your country but not acknowledging others contribution is worst thing….. so go get some life Mr chan and for your Info I am not a japanese not even an asian…
Sin Lok
Beway Seems to me your describing your Chinese self!
Really???
@Pathetic Beway…Japan has more than sushi in terms of soft power to offer…..music, movies, clothes, modernity, technology, culture, political values (unlike China or other states in the region) but also its UN forces deployed overseas. The problem lies in disputed islands and a reluctance regarding apologing for WW2. Its economcy is falling but its society remains attractive.
Andao
Samurais, video games, anime/manga…these are all very strong Japanese soft power elements
joseph enry
Your analysis appears to have based on old observation: China has gone past being assertive few years ago, it is in the center of being aggressive and full steam ahead against its ASEAN neighbors. While the recent ASEAN discord demonstrated that China purchases can get 1 or 2 votes, it also exposes China's illy intended political ambitions that may erode its economic might. This should provide Japan with brighter opportunities to engage and gain soft power advantage as ASEAN members will eventually, position their national priorities and group's priorities along 1) appearance of not taking side US vs. China confrontation. 2) internationalization of economic growth beyond China's influence.
John Chan
@joseph enry,
After WWII, USA imperialist made Japan a springboard to launch its conquest to enslave Asia, so it gave technologies and financial aid to get Japan a head start meanwhile waging wars and destruction in rest of Asia.
Japan got its wealth and modernization on the back of American’s wars in Korea and Vietnam. From 50s onwards Japan restarted its unfinished Fascist Imperial Japan dream of conquest Asia and enslaving Asian. Under the American hegemony wing, while China was isolated, Japan did not expend its soft power nearly for 30 years, instead it abused SE Asia natural resources and exploited Asians recklessly, clear cut islands was one of the examples how the Japanese abused the SE Asia.
A bellicose Japan reminds all Asians about its unapologetic past brutal aggressions and war crimes, and its declining economy make its capability to expend soft power among the Asians very weak.
filipino defender
Again evidence?
ian
Well said. His premise re Japan still applies but attitude towards china had gone through a dramatic shift. Read prof Carl Thayer's article in the Asia times to confirm that only Cambodia acted on behalf of china while all the rest including Singapore desperately tried to commit to a strong statement re SCS. Thailand itself had gone through a big opinion shift as well because of recent events but also china's strong backing for cambodia against their temple disputes.
I suppose the author had been in hibernation while all this had been going on.