Alongside Mongolia’s proactive foreign policy and global engagement, modernization of the country’s defense sector is of great importance to protect its independence and sovereignty – and Mongolia is seeking foreign assistance to bolster its capabilities. Among Mongolia’s regional partners, Japan is playing an increasingly important role in modernizing the country’s defense sector.
A unique factor in Mongolia’s defense is that the constitution prohibits the country from joining military alliances or allowing foreign military forces to be stationed in the country. But this still leaves open a wide variety of cooperation mechanisms with foreign partners willing to help modernize Mongolia’s defense sector and its capabilities. Japan – which has a technologically advanced defense sector – has proved a particularly important partner in this regard.
Since becoming strategic partners in 2010, Mongolia and Japan have increased defense cooperation. Two years ago, in 2022, during Mongolian President Khurelsukh Ukhnaa’s state visit to Japan, the two governments upgraded their 2010 strategic partnership agreement to a “Special Strategic Partnership for Peace and Security,” expanding their cooperation not only in regional affairs but beyond.
In 2024, Mongolia’s Minister of Defense Byambatsogt Sandag and Japan’s Ambassador to Mongolia Igawahara Masaru signed the Agreement between the Government of Japan and the Government of Mongolia concerning the Transfer of Defense Equipment and Technology. This marked a significant milestone in the defense and diplomatic relations between the two countries and laid the groundwork for enhanced defense cooperation.
This particular agreement can be better understood when we review strategic interests of both countries, the growing need for defense modernization in Mongolia, and Japan’s consistent pursuit of regional stability.
In the current geopolitical circumstances, as a small state with a limited military capability, Mongolia cannot compare to its neighbors or regional actors. Mongolia only shares borders with both Russia and China, two nuclear countries with significant geopolitical clout. In 2025, Mongolia ranked 98th of 145 countries in Global Firepower’s annual Military Strength Ranking, whereas Russia and China are ranked second and third, respectively.
With growing fears over North Korea’s nuclear capability, the Northeast Asian security dynamics are getting more complex, and Mongolia has found it necessary to modernize its defense capabilities. Nontraditional security threats, such as human and drug trafficking, and cyber crime, are also prevalent in Mongolia.
Thus, Mongolia seeks to modernize its forces and become a capable player – not only for its own defense but also to play a greater role in regional and international peace and security. This effort will require partnerships and cooperation with technologically advanced countries, like Japan.
The 2024 defense transfer agreement with Japan provides Mongolia access to advanced defense technology and equipment, such as surveillance radars, air-traffic control radar systems, reconnaissance drones, and other high-tech military assets. In Mongolia’s landlocked environment, these modern defense tools will improve its border control capabilities, allowing Ulaanbaatar to monitor potential threats and tackle human trafficking and transnational drug-trafficking. The combination of these increased capabilities will strengthen its national defense infrastructure.
Japan has long been a key player in regional security, and under the administration of former Prime Minister Kishida Fumio, Japan was increasingly focused on strengthening its defense capabilities and deepening its partnerships with like-minded nations. For Japan, the 2024 agreement with Mongolia is part of a broader strategy to expand its security footprint in the Indo-Pacific region and enhance its alliances with countries outside its immediate sphere of influence.
Japan’s strategic vision is centered around maintaining a “Free and Open Indo-Pacific,” a concept that emphasizes security, freedom of navigation, and the rule of law in the Indo-Pacific region. This vision is particularly poignant as China continues to assert its claims in the South China Sea and over Taiwan, even while a renewed and antagonistic North Korean military buildup has raised concerns among regional powers, including Japan. Tokyo has consistently described its current security environment as the “most severe” since the end of World War II. In this context, Japan has sought to broaden its partnerships with countries like India, Australia, and Vietnam, as well as with smaller, neutral nations such as Mongolia.
By opening the door to transfer defense technology to Mongolia, Japan not only strengthens its ties with Ulaanbaatar but also sends a message to other regional actors – including China, North Korea, and Russia – that it is committed to ensuring stability and security in the region. For Japan, supporting Mongolia’s defense capabilities also serves as a counterbalance to the influence of China and Russia in the region, supporting the aim that Mongolia remains an independent and sovereign nation with options beyond its two giant neighbors.
From Mongolia’s point of view, Japan’s participation in Ulaanbaatar’s defense modernization aligns with the country’s desire to maintain military neutrality while still enhancing its capabilities. Mongolia does not seek to become part of any military alliance but understands the importance of modernizing its defense forces to ensure its sovereignty and contribute to regional peacekeeping efforts.
There is a greater purpose for advancing capabilities for both Japan and Mongolia. The Indo-Pacific region has become a focal point of global strategic competition. The timing of the Japan-Mongolia defense agreement in December 2024 reflected this broader geopolitical trend.
Mongolia’s strategic position – between China and Russia – makes it an important player in this evolving security landscape. While Mongolia has traditionally maintained a neutral stance, it has become more active in seeking international cooperation on defense matters, recognizing that regional security stability is in its best interest.
In the East Asia context, the partnership with Japan, a major regional power, provides Mongolia with access to state-of-the-art defense technologies that will bolster its defense infrastructure without aligning itself with any military alliance. This ensures that Mongolia can maintain its independent foreign policy while benefiting from the security enhancements provided by the agreement.
At the same time, observers must also recognize the defense technologies on offer provide capabilities that are not perceived as a direct threat to Mongolia’s immediate neighbors. This is a calculated decision on both sides that will enable Mongolia to modernize outdated equipment without antagonizing its much more powerful neighbors.